Symposium Abstracts

Day 2, Tuesday

Farmer Perception of Technology and its Impact on Technology Uptake: The Case of Fodder Legume in Central Kenya Highlands (Abstract 2.1)

J. Sinja, J. Karugia,  I. Baltenweck, M. Waithaka, M.D. Miano and D. Romney

 Technology adoption by farmers is crucial to increasing agricultural productivity hence meeting food and nutrition challenges in Africa.  Economists investigating consumer demand have accumulated considerable evidence showing that consumers generally have subjective preferences for product attributes. However, when investigating adoption of new agricultural technologies, economists have lagged behind in analysing how farmers’ (the consumer of agricultural technologies) subjective perceptions of technology characteristics affect their adoption decisions. Focusing on farmer perceptions of technologies may provide a better understanding of technology adoption since they deal with the technologies and probably perceive technologies differently from researchers and extension agents. The objective of this paper is to investigate farmers’ perception of technology and its impact on adoption using a case study of legume forages in central Kenya highlands.  Data from a random sample of 131 farm households in four districts in central Kenya was used. Using participatory techniques, four most important fodder legume attributes to farmers in their adoption decision were identified. These were then used in conjoint analysis. An ordered probit model was estimated to assess relative importance of each attribute to the farmer. A tobit model was also estimated to show the effect of farmers’ perception of calliandra and desmodium on probability and intensity of adoption. Results showed that dry season tolerance and economy on land are most important characteristics of fodder legumes to the farmers. It was also found that Calliandra and desmodium were more relevant to the farmers in the area than other fodders. Farmers’ perception of the two fodders had a significant impact on their adoption. Consequently, it was recommended that before introducing a technology in an area, it is necessary that the farmers’ perception of the technology be analysed

The Commercialization of the Subsistence Economy and its Implications for Household Food Security in Uganda (Abstract 2.2)

 E. Apili, C. Ejupu, J.F. Kirsten and F. Opio

The clear dichotomy between cash crops, which were for a long time in Uganda mainly non-food crops (coffee, cotton, tea and tobacco), and food crops, is no longer as clearly defined today.  Food crops have increasingly become an important source of cash income to the majority of subsistence farmers throughout the country.  Although Uganda is considered a food self-sufficient country, indications are that per capita food production is declining and food insecurity is a growing concern. Besides climatic failures, poverty and insecurity, the increased sale of food could contribute to creating food shortages at household level.  There is concern that the increased sale of food is a reaction to pressure for cash income. This paper is a result of a case study done in three districts of Uganda, Apac, Mbale and Soroti.  Through descriptive and logit analyses, it examines the relationship between food availability, a measure of food security, and the proportion of food sold relative to output, a measure of commercialization.  It also draws attention to some of the factors that are driving food sales. The findings are that on average the proportion of food sold to that produced is significantly negative to daily food available per adult equivalent, while increased production is significantly positive to food availability.  That the social policies being pursued by Government also have a direct bearing on household food security is borne out by pre-school and school going children being significantly negative to food availability. 

Striving for Higher Impacts in Agricultural Research and Development (Abstract 2.3)

M.M. Waithaka and I.J. Minde

Over the years, substantial investments in agricultural research have been made in sub-Saharan Africa.  The few studies on research investments show impressive returns that are comparable to those achieved in developed countries. However, problems such as recurrent hunger, poverty, food insecurity and natural resource degradation continue to plague the region. Agricultural development arena is changing rapidly toward non-linear innovation systems of complex actor networks and multiple sources of innovations characterized by dynamic and iterative learning processes that constantly inform, renew and advance the state of the systems. Most actors and institutions are not linked effectively often from imaginary boundaries created by prescribed mandates and parochial interests. While more investments in research and development are required for the region, it is becoming increasingly difficult to justify them in the wake of competing needs in the face of shrinking national budgets. The few impact assessments that have been carried out in the region have been incidental and not linked to the research planning cycle implying that lessons from previous research efforts are not used when planning for subsequent research and development efforts. We are proposing impact orientation to track impact to the attainment of institutional and overall development goals. This calls in part for impact assessment to be made an integral part of planning, monitoring and evaluation along with appreciation of the impact chain and actors involved in the innovation process to demonstrate relevance to development goals and thus justify funding.

Agricultural Research Networks and Partnerships: Theories and Methods for Assessing Their Contribution to Innovation and Development  (Abstract 2.4)

David J. Spielman

 Networks and partnerships are a new and popular item on the global development agenda, no less in the area of agricultural innovation, and no less in sub-Saharan Africa. By bringing together public decision-makers, scientific researchers, private firms, and other non-state actors, networks and partnerships offer the promise of greater knowledge-sharing, synergistic research, scale economies, and better solutions to some of the most pressing issues in the region. While health sector initiatives have advanced rapidly along these lines, similar progress in the agricultural research sector is lagging. This paper contributes to the literature on networks and partnerships by providing a critical and analytical perspective on this new modality, and by examining the role that networks and partnerships play in agricultural innovation. In doing so, the paper begins by classifying the different types of networks and partnerships emerging in the field of agricultural research in developing countries. Broadly, these include informational networks; collaborative research partnerships; and commercial ventures. Each possesses unique characteristics and relevance within a given society’s agricultural innovation system. Second, the paper provides a methodological approach to analyzing the effectiveness of networks and partnerships. The approach, while loosely derived from benefit-cost analysis, places specific emphasis on the calculation of transactions, opportunity costs and risk management costs, and how such costs can be minimized within an innovation system comprised of diverse actors facing differing incentive structures. An additional methodology is introduced to shed light on the actual behaviour—the choices, decisions and actions—of agents engaging in networks and partnerships. Third, by drawing on experiences from other sectors and regions, the paper poses several options that may improve the potential impact of networks and partnerships on the rate of innovation in the agricultural sector. Options include several alternative regulatory and investment policies that could improve the incentives facing diverse actors who are willing or able to invest in networks and partnerships. Finally, the paper attempts to relate the growing popularity of networks and partnerships in agricultural innovation to explicit efforts to reduce poverty, improve food security, and stimulate agricultural development and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa. In doing so, the paper questions the extent to which this new approach is, in fact, improving the options and opportunities available to policymakers, public and private researchers, private firms and entrepreneurs, as well as the ultimate beneficiaries of their actions - smallholder farmers, agrarian labourers, rural women, and other vulnerable social groups.

Improving the Technical Efficiency of Nigerian Cocoa Farmers through Institutionalized Farm Credit (Abstract 2.5)

 R.A. Alabi, B. Aigbokhan and M.I  Ailemen

This study was undertaken to empirically investigate credit sources used by Nigerian cocoa farmers.  It examines their farm credit utilization profile and determines the effects of the credit on the output and technical efficiency of the farmers.  Through multistage sampling, Oyo State was selected among cocoa producing States in Nigeria.  Data were generated from 271 cocoa farmers in Oyo State through well-structured questionnaires from five Local Government Areas.  Descriptive and stochastic frontier production methodologies were employed to analyze the relevant data.  The analyses show that majority of the farmers (57%) used their personal savings, 49% took loans from cooperative society, 14% borrowed money from friend/relative, 10% took loans from saving clubs (Esusu), none of them got loan from institutionalized banks.  Their loan utilization profile shows that 80% of the farmers used the loan for farming purposes, while 9% and 12% used it for ceremony and family expenses respectively.  The average volume of credit taken by the farmers is N7,334 ($54) per annum per farmer. The stochastic frontier production function analysis shows that volume of credit is a positive and significant determinant of cocoa production.  The technical efficiency of non-borrowers (91%) is less than technical efficiency of borrowers (93%).  This study refutes the notion that Nigerian cocoa farmers misuse farm credit for non-farm purposes. It also established that the volume of credit among the farmers is small because they are not from institutionalized banks.  It is recommended that loans from institutionalized banks, which can give bigger and long term loans should be channeled to Nigerian cocoa farmers.

Factors Influencing Farmers’ Membership to Agricultural Marketing Associations (Abstract 2.6)

F. M. Mwaura, V. Ogemah, D. N. Sikuku, P.L. Woomer and E.J. Mukhwana

In rural Kenya, farmers perceive groups as important avenues for improving their wellbeing as regards saving and investment, accessing and evaluating agricultural technologies, collateral for micro-credit, fund raising in meeting family responsibilities and also as a social identity. Effort is being made in empowering farmers’ groups to become marketing organizations in order to realize economies of scale and greater returns from their investments in crop production. Marketing among smallholders sector is organizationally and technologically complex, hence it is imperative to understand and evaluate opportunities and challenges that group membership faces. A survey was administered among 215 farmers in five localities of Bungoma district of western Kenya. Respondents were queried on their membership to groups, challenges associated with groups, failures in groups and factors that contribute to the success of the group. The socioeconomic characteristics of farmers and their perception of groups were used to determine their acceptance to join marketing organizations. Although respondents listed a number of benefits associated with group membership, they were reluctant to become members as they perceived groups to have a lot of shortcomings that include mismanagement of resources (42%), poor leadership (42%), conflicts among members (40%), failure to achieve their goals (32%) and lack of resources (financial and skills, 27%). These constraints lead to these organizations being incapacitated in addressing agricultural development.  Provision of training, defining members’ responsibilities, formalizing groups through registration, access to professionals for consultation and loan facilities improve the cohesiveness and success of farmer-based marketing associations.

Market and Coordination Failures in Poor Rural Economies: Policy Implications for Agricultural and Rural Development (Abstract 2.7)

Andrew Dorward, Jonathan Kydd and Colin Poulton

This paper argues that the disappointing outcomes of adjustment policies in poor rural economies, principally in sub-Saharan Africa, can be partly attributed to weaknesses in the neo-classical theory which underlies these polices and from associated failures to recognise structural changes (or transitions) in growing agricultural economies. After a brief description of agricultural policy changes in sub Saharan Africa, the mixed achievements of market liberalisation policies are explained using new institutional economic arguments regarding inherent difficulties in economic coordination in poor economies, difficulties which markets themselves cannot overcome. A novel framework is put forward for understanding coordination failure and integrating it with other causes of under-development – notably low levels of technical and institutional development and poor governance. The paper concludes by considering the implications of these arguments for development policies in different economies.

Marketing Strategy and Development of High-value Fruit Trees and Medicinal Plants of West and Central Africa (Abstract 2.8)

Charly Facheux,  Zac Tchoundjeu, Liz Betser and Honore Tabuna

For decades the value of forest products was often only expressed in timber, neglecting the importance of other biological resources. These biological products are often grouped under the term Non-Timber-Forest-Products (NTFPs). Forests are important sources of NTFPs for health care, domestic consumption and generation of cash income for people living in and around them. Priority setting conducted by ICRAF in West and Central Africa coupled with market surveys of main NTFPs clearly indicates that a considerable amount of income is generated from the sale and marketing of NTFPs. Local markets play an important role in the marketing of NTFPs. The recorded exports of Kola nut from Cameroon to Nigeria and the Central African Republic in 1992 was estimated at 448 tons, whereas the exports of Gnetum africanum from Cameroon to Nigeria amounted to 428 tons. At the international level, it is estimated that the annual trade of NTFPs amounts to US$ 11 billion. The present paper looks at the strategy developed by ICRAF in the West and Central Africa region (Cameroon, Nigeria, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea) aimed at characterising NTFPs markets as a first step in determining the importance of NTFPs in the region. This was done by estimating the real potential market of NTFPs, the quantity of NTFPs marketed, in a selection of more than 15 key markets, and the examination of possibilities and opportunities for increased NTFPs household income contribution through market improvements. It presents the results of a study, which analysed the main NTFPs sold in the region. Thus, the study confirms the role of NTFPs as a source of employment and income not only for gatherers but also for traders, and suggests the need and potential for developing these markets.

Towards Improving Market Access for Small-scale Farmers in Tanzania (Abstract 2.9)

G.C. Ashimogo, A.C. Isinika, and J.E.D. Mlangwa

Markets fail in their role of allocating scarce resources to alternative ends when transaction costs become so high as to preclude exchange. An important step toward improving the functioning of markets in this case is to understand the nature and effects of constraints facing market participants. This paper presents an empirical analysis of determinants of market access faced by smallholder sellers of staple grains in Tanzania, following market liberalisation. The paper is mainly based on findings of a micro study of 400 households conducted in two regions, Morogoro and Iringa, focusing on rice and maize. Results show that post-liberalisation, grain marketing in Tanzania has become more efficient in terms of declining private sector margins, as traders’ transfer costs have fallen. However, despite the fact that most poor people still depend on agriculture for their livelihoods, lack of market access remains both a cause and an effect of poverty. Access to market information is still limited, leading to considerable uncertainty in grain marketing. Farmers also lack any form of organisation that can make them enjoy economies of scale from group action in joint marketing and bargaining. Direct measures to support improved access to markets, especially through improvement in rural infrastructure, is necessary for productive and thus competitive agricultural activities. Furthermore, empowering of farmers and other actors in the agricultural sector for enhancing their cooperation and initiation of micro-finance schemes is another area in which the government could render its assistance

Competitive Strategy through Innovative Partnerships at regional level: The case of tomatoes and soy bean value chains in Northern Togo (Abstract 2.10)

A. Maatman and A. Konlambigue

Agricultural intensification is widely seen as a condition sine-qua-non for overall economic growth and food security in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Though attention is shifting from technology development to more market-oriented approaches, the best examples of agricultural intensification seem to happen relatively independent of interventions from the development circuit. This paper argues that agricultural intensification and market development may be stimulated through grassroots and regional-level efforts when care is taken not to substitute for responsibilities that belong to farmers, traders, and other stakeholders themselves. An approach is required that carefully addresses the factors influencing the competitiveness of agricultural enterprises. A major role of ‘facilitating institutions’ may be to develop efficient relationships between farmers - and their complex multi-purpose farming systems – and traders and processors - engaged in commodity specific trade and processing market segments. Finally, competitiveness is not something to win for today – it crucially depends on innovation and continuous learning. This article will present cases from Northern Togo, where effective linkages have been established between farmers, traders, processors and rural bankers and NGOs. We will concentrate on three cases: tomato production and marketing, soy bean processing and the development of credit structures and interlocked contracts for input provisioning. The article is based on qualitative data – interviews with the major stakeholders, and accounts in progress reports from the NGOs and farmer organizations. It will conclude with some observations on the major lessons learnt, and the contribution that social scientists can make to strengthen dialogue between theory and practice.

Opportunities and Challenges in Building a Food Policy Information Portal for Africa (Abstract 2.11)

 Josué Dioné  and Michael Weber

Getting the food and agriculture system moving faster is crucial for structural transformation and poverty reduction in Africa.   This requires investing in basic productive and market infrastructure, and expanding appropriate research, knowledge, and technology for increased productivity at all stages of the agricultural commodity chains. The advent of the World Wide Web and steady reductions in the cost and increases in the speed of Internet services in Africa are changing the way we must think about the development, storage, and dissemination of policy analysis and training materials, all crucial inputs for agricultural development.  Yet, much remains to be done to harness these information communication technology tools more effectively to help achieve African development goals in agricultural sciences, food security, and policy reform (UNECA/DISD). Our paper identifies opportunities and constraints facing a program being undertaken by the UNECA, several regional African policy research networks, and MSU to:  (1) improve the skills of African technical and social scientists to use more effectively the wealth of scientific knowledge and experience currently available on the Internet to carry out applied policy research, outreach and training; and (2) make the work of Africans more visible to others, thereby fostering south-north and south-south learning.  The paper discusses a collaborative internet-based tool being developed to achieve these objectives. The Food Security and Food Policy Information Portal for Africa  gives researchers and policy makers a one-stop and multi-language location for: (a) easily accessing key data and analyses on food security and food policy for every country in Africa; (b) sharing their own work with colleagues across the world; (c) finding training materials on more effective use of the ICT, and on improved applied research and policy analysis methods; and (d) spotlighting  experiences on how to improve the effectiveness of policy extension efforts. 

Explaining Poverty in Uganda: Evidence from the Uganda National Household Survey (Abstract 2.12)

David S. Kraybill and Bernard Bashaasha

The broad aim of this research is to establish a tool for identifying cost effective poverty alleviation strategies in Uganda.  The objectives are to test hypotheses about causes of poverty in Uganda and to develop a poverty simulation model for policy analysis.  We use data for 9,710 households from the 2002/2003 Uganda National Household Survey (UNHS) to estimate a semi-log econometric model. The model includes 19 households level characteristics and 8 community level characteristics as explanatory variables.  The dependent variable is the natural logarithm of household consumption per adult equivalent.  The model is estimated at both national and regional (5 regions) by weighted least squares with robust variance.  The results indicate 8 particularly promising poverty reducing policies namely: expansion of formal employment, secondary education, reduction in population growth, rural electrification, off-farm activities, collateral free credit, telephone services and reducing distance to community services.  The study highlights the policy implications of the results.  

Ex-Ante Evaluation of Nutrition and Health Benefits of Biofortified Cassava Roots in Nigeria: The Dalys Approach (Abstract 2.13)

Manyong, V.M., A.S. Bamire, I.O. Sanusi and D.O. Awotide

Cassava is a major staple that supplies more than 50% of daily energy to more than 200 million persons in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Cassava roots are known to be low in micronutrients such as vitamin A, iron, and zinc. Micronutrient deficiencies threaten the lives of millions of poor households and those located in remote rural areas of SSA often not targeted by fortification programmes. This paper presents results from an ex-ante evaluation of nutrition and health benefits of increased vitamin A status of cassava roots through biofortification for at risk target groups using the disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) approach. Results showed that Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) causes an annual loss of about 553,000 years of “healthy” life in Nigeria with children constituting more than forty percent. Biofortified cassava would reduce VAD by 4.42%, 11.73%, and 3.14% for children, pregnant women, and lactating women respectively in the pessimistic scenario. Results for the optimistic scenario are 28.79%, 76.39, and 20.45% respectively. The biofortification of cassava roots would result in annual gains of about 33,000 years life and avert 166 child deaths per year for the pessimistic scenario and about 220,000 years life and 1272 child deaths per year for the optimistic scenario. In economic terms, such a programme would bring gains amounting to about $10 million per year, which Biofortification, DALYs, Economics, Health, corresponds to an internal rate of return (IRR) as high as 92.4% in the pessimistic scenario. Results in the optimistic scenario are about $63 million per year and an IRR of 165.3%. A research and development effort aimed at the biofortification of cassava roots is a powerful strategy in the fight against hidden hunger from micronutrient deficiencies, which African governments at the national and local levels, and international investors should support to improve the standard of living of the people in SSA.

Breaking the “Fertilizer Poverty” and Food Insecurity Traps in Smallholder Maize Based Farming System in Southern Africa (Abstract 2.14)

Mlugetta Mekuria and Shephard Siziba

Smallholder farmers in southern Africa face acute food insecurity because the productive capacity of their soils has declined. These resource-poor farmers increasingly cannot afford mineral fertilizers Farmers mentioned the lack of fertilizers for their depleted soils as the most important constraint- “Empty Soils, stomachs and pockets”   In response to this challenge, Soil Fert Net researchers in southern Africa have developed and promoted a range of “best-bet” soil fertility management technological (SFMT) options for farmers. This paper presents a review of financial, adoption, institutional and policy analysis undertaken by EPWG members on the use of SFMT by smallholders. Financial and risk analysis tools, selected econometric models and policy analysis matrix were employed to measure profitability, incidence and intensity of adoption and to understand the effects of policy instruments necessary to promote SFMTs. Financial analysis of ‘best bets’ indicates that (even with current unfavorable input and output prices) there are positive payoffs to investing in SFMTs. Adoption studies in Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique revealed that farmers need to make a significant initial investment in terms of labor, land and capital before they start to obtain benefits. SFMTs are also management and information intensive and farmers’ limited skills and knowledge are critical factors influencing adoption. Profitability and subsequent adoption decisions are sensitive to changes in maize grain price, crop yield and the cost of borrowing capital. The studies recommended institutional and policy support and advocacy for better access to credit, input availability, market linkages to scale up the diffusion and promotion of SFMTs

Causes of household food insecurity in Koredegaga peasant association, Oromiya zone, Ethiopia (Abstract 2.15)

H. Kidane, Z.G. Alemu and G. Kundhlande

The main objective of the study is to examine the determinants of households’ food security using a logistic regression procedure. Initially the model was fitted with eleven factors of which six were found to be significant and all had the expected signs. These include farm land size, ox ownership, fertilizer application, education level of household heads, household size, and per capita production. The result obtained was further analyzed to compute partial effects and to conduct simulation studies on significant factors. Analysis of partial effects revealed that an introduction to fertilizer use and an improvement in the educational level of household heads give relatively higher changes in the probably of food security. On the other hand, simulations conducted on the basis of the base category of farmers, representing food secure households, revealed that both educational levels of household heads and fertilizer applications by farmers have relatively high potential to more than double the number of food secure households in the study area following improvements in these factors.      

What is the Role of Gender and Social Amenities in the Food Security Equation? A Case of Yala Division, Siaya District, Kenya (Abstract 2.16)

Jakinda D. Otieno, W. Oluoch-Kosura and Phiri P. Marenya

Food security remains a key challenge to the development efforts of most poor nations.  This study investigated the significance of gender (denoted by number of male & female children in a household) and social amenities in the food security equation.  Frequency of food-related illnesses in a household was used as proxy for food security situation, while the entitlement/food utilization side of the equation was represented by the number of male and female children in the household, main source of domestic water, distance to nearest health center, means of transport accessible, household sanitation and level of awareness on basic food preparation and handling methods.  Both descriptive and econometric models were used for analysis of primary data from a random sample of 100 farm-households in Yala division, Siaya district of Kenya.  This study was conducted in February 2004. Results of this study indicated that majority (74%) of the rural households were experiencing poor food utilization, and were thus generally food insecure.  Also, this study revealed that indeed gender and social amenities were significant in the food security equation.  Specifically, there was high correlation between food-related illnesses and use of untapped water, more male children than females in a household, long distance to health centers, lack of quick means of transport, unsafe food disposal and poor food storage habits.  In order to improve the food utilization and thereby security for the rural farm-households, this study recommends improvement in the provision of social amenities for both male and female household members equitably.

The Challenge of Agriculture, Environment and Sustainable Development in Botswana (Abstract 2.17)

B.K. Acquah

One of the objectives of agricultural development in Botswana is the increase of agricultural productivity in both arable and livestock production in order to increase farm incomes and thus help to make agriculture a sustainable activity. This paper looks at the challenges that Botswana faces in meeting this objective while minimizing any land degradation that may accompany the process of increasing agricultural productivity. The prospects of achieving increases in agricultural productivity are also examined in the light of new opportunities in agriculture such as the National Master Plan for Arable Agriculture and Dairy Development (NAMPAADD) and the Revised National Policy for Rural Development. The selective use of existing technologies that minimize land degradation in the process of achieving sustainable increases in agricultural productivity and the relevance of socio-economic factors such as marketing and credit in facilitating sustainable increases in agricultural productivity with minimum degradation to the environment are also highlighted.

Payments for Environmental Services under Emerging International Agreements: A Basis for Inclusion of Agricultural Soil Carbon Sinks  (Abstract 2.18)

Michael M. Odera and Stephen K. Kimani; Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI)

This review places in context the role agricultural soils play in global carbon dynamics, and their potential interaction with climate change through soil carbon sequestration. We first examine the potential of soils as carbon sinks, agricultural practices and dynamics in soil organic carbon, emerging agreements on payments for environmental services (PES) that mitigate global warming through enhanced carbon sinks, exclusion of agricultural activities in PES under Kyoto Protocol, and the basis for inclusion of agricultural soil carbon sinks through sustainability based production systems. Soils are one of the planet’s largest sinks for carbon and hold potential for expanded carbon sequestration through changes in management.  The global soil organic carbon (SOC) inventory is estimated to be 1200-1600 billion metric tonnes, which is equal to or slightly greater than amounts stored in terrestrial vegetation (500-700 billion metric tonnes) and the atmosphere (750 billion metric tonnes), combined. Agricultural soils, having been depleted of much of their native carbon stocks, and occupying an estimated 1.7 billion hectares, have a more significant potential SOC sink capacity.  Global estimates of this sink capacity are in the order of 20-30 billion metric tonnes over the next 50-100 years. The total global agricultural soils’ SOC stocks are estimated at 167-170 billion metric tonnes. When soil is put into cultivation, associated biological and physical processes result in a release of SOC over time, often 50% or more, depending on soil conditions and agricultural practices. Consequently, there is potential to increase SOC in most cultivated soils. Many management practices have been demonstrated to increase SOC, including incorporation of crop residues, and increases in cropping intensity and fertilization. Past and on-going biophysical studies have been able to identify and demonstrate organic based soil fertility management practices, with modest applications of mineral fertilizers that would concurrently lead to improvement in SOC levels, nutrient loss amelioration and improved agricultural productivity. Management practices that could add 4 T C ha^-1 yr^-1  in the system  have been demonstrated. Due to the potential impacts of climate change on the environment as a result of increasing concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide, the world community established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988. The responsibility of IPCC is to undertake an assessment of the science, impacts, adaptation, and mitigation options in relation to climate change and advise the Conference of Parties (COP) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). At the sixth Conference of the Parties (COP-6) in Marrakech, Morocco, limits were placed on the nature of activities that could be undertaken and the amount of carbon credits that could be generated through land use change and forestry activities to benefit from PES. These limits excluded all activities associated with management of natural forests and agricultural lands. This review argues that a demonstration of sustainability of carbon sinks in agricultural soils under empirically derived predictable management practices could serve as a basis for arguing the case for inclusion of carbon sinks in such systems in payments for environmental services under the Clean Development (CDM) of Kyoto Protocol.

Soil Fertility Management Choice in the Maize-Based Smallholder Farming Systems in Malawi (Abstract 2.19)

Hardwick Tchale

The paper analyses the factors that affect smallholder farmers’ choice of soil fertility management options in Malawi using a two-stage maximum likelihood estimation procedure. Using results from the Double-Hurdle model, the paper estimates the probabilities and intensities of fertilizer application conditional on choice of inorganic fertilizer. The findings indicate that relatively wealthy indicators, human capital, credit and market access, food security index and land pressure are the main factors that greatly influence farmers’ choice and intensity of input investment. Although there is a high and positive correlation between probability of adoption and intensity of application, factors that influence adoption are not necessarily the same as those that influence the intensity of application, conditional on adoption. The paper concludes with policy and research implications aimed at informing the debate on enhancing sustainable soil fertility management among smallholder farmers in Malawi.

Social Capital and Soil Erosion Control in Agriculturally Marginal Areas of Kenya: The case of Machakos and Taita - Taveta Districts (Abstract 2.20)

Gideon A. Obare, Samuel M. Mwakubo, Bernard K. Njehia, Emily A. Ouma, Lutta Mohammed and John Omiti

This paper evaluates the farmers’ perception of the soil erosion problem, and identifies and analyses social capital elements that motivate households to actively participate in soil conservation in agricultural production process. The data are based on a survey of 321 households in semi arid lands of Kenya which are obtained from farming households using a structured questionnaire in Machakos and Taita-Taveta Districts.  Two modelling strategies were used: A Probit model is used to estimate the likelihoods of factors that may influence farmers’ perception of soil erosion problem, and a Tobit to estimate parameters of factors that influence terracing intensity. The results indicate that although perception of the soil erosion problem is relatively high in the study sites, its effect on soil conservation investments is not significant. In Machakos, the significant determinants of terracing intensity include land tenure, crop area, household size, and membership diversity whereas in Taita-Taveta they include age of household head and consumer-worker ratio. Results from the aggregated data show that lagged crop output, group membership density and diversity, cognitive social capital and location significantly influence the terracing intensity on farm household fields. The policy challenge is to establish and strengthen social capital elements that have a strong influence on communities undertaking soil erosion control measures for sustainable agriculture and rural development.