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Tuesday, 21 August 2007
MEETING AFRICA’S
FOOD AND NUTRITION CHALLENGES
The Prevalence of Under-Nourished Child Obese Mother Phenomenon in Rural
Areas: Evidence from Central Province of Kenya
John G. Mburu
-University of Nairobi
Attainment of nutritional security is a major focus of the
Millennium Development Goals. Despite efforts, Sub-Saharan Africa
countries are yet to make significant progress in becoming nutritionally
secure. Over the years, maternal obesity and child under-nutrition have
concurrently been on the increase. The rise in obesity and child
under-nutrition is attributed to, among others, urbanization-driven shifts
in eating habits and lifestyle, changes in purchasing power, food
assistance and stress-related medical conditions. Studies in Asia and
Latin America have associated co-existence of adult obesity and child
under-nutrition with urban areas. In this paper we examine the prevalence
of child under-nutrition and mother obesity in rural Kenya. We find that
22 per cent of households with undernourished children have mothers that
are obese. The paper also find a positive association between wealth,
education and woman status and the existence of undernourished child obese
mother phenomenon in the same household. The policy implication of this
double burden problem is that interventions aimed at solving child
malnutrition need to be targeted.
The Impact
of Drought on Household Food Security in the Limpopo Basin of Semi Arid
Southern Africa: The Case of Kgatleng District in Botswana
Benjamin K.
Acquah
-University
of Botswana
The Limpopo Basin is important to Botswana’s agriculture in terms
of its land area of 80118 square kilometers. Climatic conditions in the
Basin have ranged from droughts to floods in some years. The semi-arid
nature of the Basin with the resultant low crop yields under rain-fed
conditions has meant that communities in the area have adapted various
strategies with regard to their access to food. These coping strategies
are likely to undergo severe strains during periods of extreme weather
patterns such as droughts. A household survey was conducted in two
villages of Kgatleng District within the Basin in February 2005 with the
objective of studying the coping strategies of selected households during
drought in order to improve on coping mechanisms of communities in the
Basin. The numbers of households selected by simple random sampling for
study in the two villages were 61 and 45, respectively. The findings of
the study indicated that during the drought in 2004 respondents’ sources
of supplies were the shops, crop production and government provision.
Coping mechanisms of households and differences in coping strategies in
the two villages have been highlighted. The study recommends, among
others, that the measures already in place to provide food security for
households in drought prone areas in the Basin and in Botswana in general,
need to be strengthened to ensure that households’ vulnerability to food
insecurity during periods of climate change such as drought is minimized.
Agriculture for Food and Nutrition Security: A Must for Achieving the
Millennium Development Goals in Africa
Saa Dittoh, -University for Development Studies, Tamale Ghana
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) underscore an overriding
importance of human development for sustained economic, social, political
and other development, and nutrition is the beginning of human
development. Nutrition has, however, not been viewed as a development
imperative in many African countries. Agricultural and health policies,
projects and programmes and the conduct of agricultural and health
research in most African countries do not consider nutrition to any
significant degree. The paper argues that food production, poverty,
malnutrition and health are very intricately linked and the result of that
linkage is probably the most important determinant of development and,
thus, the realization of the MDGs in Africa. It also argues that it is a
misconception that food security implies or is synonymous with food and
nutrition security. The paper proposes that food policies, projects,
programmes and research should focus on food and nutrition security and
not just food security. In that regard, the paper proposes that the
following interlinked processes must be taken into consideration in
agricultural policies, projects, programmes and research: 1) Effective
marriage of indigenous and “scientific” knowledge in food production,
processing, preservation, preparation and consumption; 2) Promotion of
agro-biodiversity, including the domestication of known nutritionally-rich
semi-wild plants; 3) Development of sustainable farming systems, including
effective crop-livestock integration systems; 4) Development of food
production-marketing-consumption-nutrition linkage processes at community
levels; and 5) National and local level nutrition policy research and
advocacy.
Foreign Development Assistance to Agriculture and Food Security in Africa
in the Last Decade: Lessons for Tomorrow
I. Okike I.–World
Bank, Abuja, Nigeria
There are well-founded fears that it is unrealistic to expect Africa to
achieve the Millennium Development Goal 1 (MDG1) to eradicate extreme
poverty and hunger and to halve the proportion of people who suffer hunger
by 2015. Recent efforts of African governments to meet the MDG1 have
resulted in a number of initiatives including the Comprehensive African
Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP) framework that calls for 6%
agricultural growth rates, the Maputo Declaration calling for 10% of total
public spending to be on agriculture, and the 2006 Abuja Declaration
calling for an increase in fertilizer use from 8 – 50 kg/ha by 2015.
CAADP estimates that an average investment of US$18 billion/year will be
required to trigger sufficient agricultural growth rate to meet MDG1.
Meanwhile, budgetary allocation to agriculture in many African nations is
low and an analysis of trends in foreign development assistance to Africa
over a 10-year period (1995-2004) showed that the annual commitment to
agriculture out of the total assistance of US$230 billion declined from
11% in 1995 to 6% in 2004. This decline could be traced to the frustration
of donors and African governments alike at the failure of agriculture to
achieve sufficient progress towards food security and poverty reduction.
Nevertheless, there is evidence from the past that where projects have
been successful,
governments provided political leadership and financial support; organized
farmers groups actively participated in decision-making; and that close
public-private-partnership existed. Based on the lessons learned from
previous projects and the subsequent more favorable rules of engagement of
donors with beneficiaries, the paper concludes that the challenges and
responsibility for getting agriculture back to the front-burner of the
development agenda is largely that of African governments.
Opportunities for African Small Farmers in Ethical Foods Markets: An
Entrepreneurial Perspective
Vincent Amanor-Boadu - Kansas State University, Manhattan
Income growth in many countries is fuelling expansion of the ethical
consumer segment and creating an unprecedented opportunity for small
African farmers. The challenge is how to organize these farmers to seize
the opportunities being offered by the emerging market. We argue in this
paper that the development of entrepreneurial perspectives on small
farmers’ realities could help alleviate the current economic challenges
confronting them. We suggest increased engagement between researchers and
academics with producers in entrepreneurial ventures to seize these
opportunities. This is new model of economic development focuses on
microeconomic solutions through entrepreneurial initiatives. We believe
the agricultural economics profession’s ability to engage producers in
this manner will not only increase its relevance but provide needed
financial resources to grow education and research programs.
Principaux facteurs qui affectent l’état nutritionnel et de santé des
enfants exposés à l’aflatoxine au Bénin: Application du model Probit
Allomasso, Raymond, -Institut International d’Agriculture Tropicale,
Station du Bénin
Une enquête diagnostique a été conduite en zones agro-écologiques côtière
et guinéenne du Bénin pour évaluer le niveau d’exposition à l’aflatoxine
d’origine alimentaire et l’état nutritionnel et de santé des enfants de
moins de 5 ans. La régression multiple et une analyse économétrique
(Probit) ont été effectuées pour identifie les principaux facteurs qui
affectent l’état nutritionnel et de santé de ces enfants. Les résultats de
l’analyse du sang montrent que presque tous les enfants (99%) sont testés
positifs à l’aflatoxine avec un taux moyen de concentration de 0,56 pg/ml
de sang. Les principaux facteurs socioéconomiques dont le revenu
hebdomadaire du ménage, la superficie de culture emblavée et le niveau
d’éducation formelle font diminuer la malnutrition chez les enfants de
moins de 5 ans exposés à l’aflatoxine. La présence d’aflatoxine dans le
sang des enfants est négativement corrélée au taux d’hémoglobine et
positivement corrélé à la morbidité observée chez ces enfants. D’autres
facteurs comme les bonnes techniques de stockage du maïs, la
pré-préparation hygiénique des aliments destinés aux enfants réduisent
significativement l’aflatoxine dans le sang pendant que la fréquence de
consommation du maïs relativement élevée contribue à sa concentration dans
le sang.
Impact Des Politiques D’alphabetisation Sur La Production Et La Securite
Alimentaires Au Togo
Kpotogbe Homevor -LARPSAD, ESA-UL
L'étude a pour objet de cerner les relations qui existent entre les
politiques d’alphabétisation mises en place au Togo, et la production et
la sécurité alimentaires. A partir des techniques de co-intégration, les
résultats révèlent l’existence d’une relation d’équilibre de long terme
entre l’alphabétisation et la production alimentaire d’une part, et entre
l’alphabétisation et la sécurité alimentaires, d’autre part. Les
estimations montrent que, si les effets des variables de capital physique
sur la production et la disponibilité alimentaires sont pour la plupart
négatifs, aussi bien à court terme qu'à long terme, traduisant le faible
recours des exploitants agricoles aux techniques modernes de production
agricole, le rôle de la variable alphabétisation (capital humain) est
mitigé. L'effet de l'alphabétisation apparaît positif à long terme sur la
production alimentaire, alors qu'à court terme il s'avère plutôt négatif,
ce qui s'expliquerait en partie par l'existence de contraintes à la
production agricole. Au niveau de la sécurité alimentaire, l'effet de
l'alphabétisation s'est révélé négatif à court et à long terme en raison
du faible niveau des investissements et de l'inadéquation du contenu des
programmes d'enseignement. Il convient donc d'améliorer la qualité des
investissements ainsi que le contenu des programmes d'alphabétisation et
de scolarisation. En outre, l'intensification des campagnes de
vulgarisation agricole à l'intention des paysans des deux sexes
permettrait de mieux mettre en pratique les connaissances théoriques
acquises suite à l’alphabétisation.
AGRICULTURE,
ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Livestock and Livelihoods: Development Goals and Indicators Applied to
Senegal.
Roland-Holst -University of California Berkeley
In this report, we present a series of empirical techniques to examine
linkage between livestock and livelihoods, using data from Senegal, a West
African economy with high levels of smallholder poverty and livestock
dependence. Our results for this country show that livestock dependent
populations are more likely to be poor and the severity of their poverty
is greater, yet the same reliance on livestock also offers a way to reduce
poverty. By analyzing market linkages and supply chains in the livestock
sector, we find that rural household producers capture only a small
fraction of the ultimate value of their products. Moreover, we find that
generalist agricultural promotion policies may be of limited value to them
because most of the value created by these policies can be captured by
downstream market participants. Our primary conclusion is that livestock
holds substantial potential for poverty alleviation, but that carefully
targeted policies are required to realize this potential.
Livelihood Strategies of Resource-Poor Farmers in Striga-Infested Areas of
Western Kenya
Victor M. Manyong – IITA
Striga hermonthica (del) Benth is threatening rural livelihoods in
western Kenya where maize is the major food and cash crop. Vulnerability
analysis was conducted on a sample of 802 households in eight districts of
Nyanza and Western provinces. Farmers perceived Striga as the major cause
of poverty and food insecurity. Both household income and child nutrition
indicators showed alarming conditions for the majority of households. The
coping strategies and informal safety nets were not capable of addressing
the vulnerability issue successfully. A logistic regression model of
determinants of poverty was estimated to examine the determinants and
correlates of poverty. Results revealed certain characteristics of
households that were more likely to be poor: poor access to land and farm
assets; high dependency ratio; headed by older farmer with low education
attainment; no off-farm work, no cash crops; depend on credit; Striga has
been on the farm for long, high perceived yield loss to Striga given high
dependency on maize for livelihoods; adopt no integrated Striga control
options; and live in Bondo and Vihiga districts. The paper concludes with
implications for policy to improve the livelihoods of small-scale farmers
in the Striga-affected areas of western Kenya.
Labor Requirements and Profitability of Alternative Soil Fertility
Management Options in Zambia
Clifford Olu Ajayi - World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF)
Low soil fertility is a major concern in agricultural productivity
and development policy discourse in sub-saharan Africa. The problem is
exacerbated by government withdrawal from fertilizer input markets and the
inability of private sector operators to fill the gap. This warranted a
search for other nutrient sources to supplement chemical fertilizers.
Based on field data collected in Zambia, this study assessed the labor
inputs implications of “improved tree fallows”, continuous maize cropping
with and without mineral fertilizer and, evaluated the financial
profitability of the different land use systems. Results show that
agroforestry-based land use systems are more profitable (NPV between $233
and $309 per ha) than farmers’ practice of continuous maize production
without external fertilization ($130/ha) but, they are less profitable
than mineral fertilizer ($499). When the effects of the 50% government
subsidy on fertilizers are taken into account, the differences in the
profitability of fertilizers over improved tree fallows falls from 61% to
13%. The returns per person labor-day is $3.20 for fertilizer and $2.50,
$2.40, and $1.90 respectively, for the three agroforestry options
evaluated and only $1.10 for unfertilized maize. These returns compare
with a daily agricultural wage of $0.50 in the study area. Key
determinants of financial attractiveness and by extension, potential
adoptability of the land use systems were identified. Given the low rate
(20%) of farmers in Zambia who have access to fertilizers, there is a
large niche to integrate other soil nutrient replenishing options with
fertilizer to improve food security and reduce poverty among resource-poor
smallholder farmers in Africa.
Unexploited Agricultural Growth: The Case of Crop–Livestock Production
Systems in Zimbabwe
Sabine Homann - ICRISAT
Livestock is the most important source of cash for small-scale
farmers in the semi-arid tropics of southern Africa. However, with limited
access to markets, farmers do not have the incentive to invest in improved
livestock management. Livestock production and off-takes remain low and
farmers are unable to realize the full potential of their herds. We
believe that improved market access will be the driver to increase
technology adoption for income growth and poverty reduction. In Zimbabwe,
a recent baseline diagnosis by ICRISAT and partners found that cash income
from goats is crucial to cover day-to-day expenditures for food, education
and human health. Cattle are more important for draft power and milk, and
support subsistence cropping activities. Major production constraints
include high mortality rates attributed to dry season feed shortages,
particularly affecting farmers with small herds. An increasing demand for
livestock products in rural and urban areas offers small-scale farmers
opportunities for market participation. However, the existing markets are
underdeveloped, with high transaction costs implying low producer prices
and poor access to information for farmers. The challenge is to sustain
livestock production, develop more effective market facilities, and
thereby increase off-take. The potential of market-led technology
development in crop–livestock systems has not been sufficiently exploited
by research and development. To have an impact on incomes and poverty, we
develop an innovative approach that would first evaluate local constraints
in production and marketing, and then test alternative livestock markets
and management strategies, with a strong linkage between private and
public sectors.
Institutional Innovations for African Smallholder Compliance with
International Food Safety Standards: Experiences from Kenyan, Ethiopian
and Zambian Green Bean Growers
Julius Juma Okello
- University of Nairobi
Many African
countries have moved into the production of non-traditional agricultural
products to diversify their exports and increase foreign currency
earnings. Accessing developed country markets requires meeting food safety
standards brought about by several demand and supply side factors. Food
retailers in the EU, the major destination market, have developed
protocols relating to pesticide residue limits, field and packinghouse
hygiene, and traceability. In this changing scenario where food safety
requirements are getting increasingly stringent, there are worries that
companies that establish production centers in LDCs might exclude
smallholder farmers. In this paper, we study the cases of green beans
production in Ethiopia, Kenya and Zambia for export to high value European
markets. Though the immediate effect of the imposition of stringent food
safety standards has been to screen away smallholders, there has been
continued participation of smallholders in some cases. This paper finds
that
emergence of new institutional arrangements have enabled the smallholders
to maintain their participation in high value European markets.
In particular, public-private partnerships have played a key role in
helping smallholder farmers acquire training on and certification against
European food safety standards. Collective action in form of producer
organizations has enabled smallholders to jointly invest in costly
facilities and take advantage of economies of scale to remain competitive.
Producer organizations also allow for cheaper means for buyers to ensure
traceability and are critical in reducing transaction costs of linking up
with smallholders.
Benefit-Cost Analysis and Socio-Economic Considerations of Trypanosomiasis
Control and Treatment in Northern Ghana
Wahab, Salifu
- Tuskegee University, USA
The paper estimates the cost of tsetse control and treatment of
trypanosomiasis and the benefits involved, using benefit-cost analysis. It
also estimates the extent to which socio-economic characteristics of
farmers affect the use of tsetse control techniques, using a maximum
Likelihood-Binary Logit model. The results show that farmers will benefit
if they invest in control and treatment of the disease. We find that the
farmer accepting the challenge that the tsetse fly is a threat to cattle
production, the number of dependants the farmer has, and the farmer
agreeing that the bite of the tsetse fly causes the nagana disease are
significant factors that affect adoption of control practices including
the use of prescribed drugs. Our findings suggest that there is potential
for farmers’ response and participation in tsetse control activities in
Northern Ghana. What seems to be lacking is the relevant information that
farmers need to encourage them to participate. We recommend therefore that
more extension services be provided livestock farmers to help them derive
maximum benefit from disease control practices.
Development and Dissemination of Improved Cassava Varieties in Uganda:
Analysis of Adoption Rates, Variety Attributes and Speed of Adoption
Edgar Twine
- National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO), Namulonge
Agricultural and Animal Research Institute (NAARI)
The transition out of extreme poverty and hunger in agrarian economies
requires an understanding of how new agricultural technologies are adopted
by poor farmers. In Uganda, improved germplasm from the cassava breeding
program has generated new varieties that are increasingly being grown by
farmers. Although considerable success has been achieved in adoption of
these varieties in general, there is increasing pressure on breeding and
technology dissemination programs to improve the targeting of their
efforts. This paper identifies the specific cassava varieties adopted thus
far and their desirable and undesirable attributes. In addition, it
determines the adoption rates of these varieties and the factors that have
influenced the speed of adoption of the most adopted variety. Results show
that NASE 1, NASE 2, NASE 3, NASE 4, NASE 10 and NASE 12 are the varieties
adopted so far. Farmers consider, inter alia, disease resistance,
maturity period, taste and dry matter content in their decision to adopt
new cassava varieties. From the Negative Binomial model, speed of adoption
of NASE 3 was positively influenced by age of household head, household
size and access to extension services. However, it was negatively
influenced by number of hoes owned by a household. We conclude that there
is need to continue breeding for adaptability to biotic stresses while
improving on attributes that influence palatability and nutritive value of
the crop. Strengthening the link between farmers and agricultural
extension agents/service providers and improving the targeting of
extension services will enhance the adoption of new cassava varieties.
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